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  • "Military history of Sparta" redirects here. For other uses, see Military history of Sparta (disambiguation). Spart
    The Spartan army stood at the center of the Spartan state, citizens trained in the
    disciplines and honor of a warrior society.[1] Subject to military drill from early manhood, the Spartans
    became one of the most feared military forces in the Greek world. At the
    height of Sparta's power – between the 6th and 4th centuries BC – it was
    commonly accepted by other Greeks that "one Spartan was worth several men of
    any other state".[1] According to Thucydides,
    the famous moment of Spartan surrender on the island of Sphacteria, off
    Pylos, in 425 BC, was highly unexpected. He wrote that
    "it was the common perception at the time that Spartans would never lay down
    their weapons for any reason, be it hunger, or danger."

    Tradition states that the semi-mythical Spartan legislator
    Lycurgus first founded the
    iconic army.[2] Referring to Sparta as having a "wall of men, instead of
    bricks", he proposed to reform Spartan society to develop a military-focused
    lifestyle "Lifestyle (sociology)") in
    accordance with "proper virtues" such as equality for
    the male citizens, austerity, strength, and fitness. A Spartan male's
    involvement with the army began in infancy when he was inspected by the
    Gerousia. Any baby judged weak or deformed was
    left at Mount Taygetus to die, since
    the world of the Spartans was no place for those who could not fend for
    themselves. (The practice of discarding children at birth took place in
    Athens as well.) Those deemed strong
    entered the agoge regime at the age of seven. Under
    the agoge the young boys or Spartiates
    underwent intense and rigorous military training.[3] Their education focused
    primarily on cunning, sports and war
    tactics
    , but also included poetry,
    music, academics, and sometimes politics. Those who passed the agoge by the
    age of 30 achieved full Spartan citizenship.

    The term "spartan"
    became in modern times synonymous with simplicity by design.[4] During
    classical times Lacedaemonian or Laconian was used for attribution, referring
    to the region of the polis instead of one of the decentralized settlements
    called Sparta. From this derives the already ancient term
    "laconic" such as in laconic
    phrase
    or
    laconophilia.

    History[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=1 "Edit

    section: History")]

    Mycenaean age[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=2

    "Edit section: Mycenaean age")]

    The first reference to the Spartans at war is in the Iliad , in which they featured among the other Greek contingents. Like the
    rest of the Mycenaean-era armies,
    it was depicted as composed largely of infantry, equipped with short swords,
    spears, and Dipylon-type ("8"-shaped simple round bronze
    shields). This was the Golden Age of Warfare.

    Each opposing army tried to fight through the other line on the right (strong
    or deep) side and then turn left; wherefore they would be able to attack the
    vulnerable flank. When this happened, it as a rule caused the army to be
    routed. The fleeing enemy were put to the sword only as far as the field of
    battle extended. The outcome of this one battle would determine the outcome of
    a particular issue. In the Golden Age of War defeated armies were not
    massacred; they fled back to their city and conceded superiority to the
    victors. It wasn't until after the Peloponnesus War that indiscriminate
    slaughter, enslavement and depredations were countenanced among the Greeks.[
    _citation needed_ ]

    War chariots were used by the elite, but
    unlike their counterparts in the Middle East, they appear to have been used
    for transport, with the warrior dismounting to fight on foot and then
    remounting to withdraw from combat, although some accounts show warriors
    throwing their spear from the chariot before dismounting.[5]

    Archaic Age and

    expansion[edit]

    Mycenaean Sparta, like much of Greece, was engulfed in the Dorian
    invasions
    , which ended the Mycenaean
    civilization and ushered in the so-called "Greek Dark Ages". During this time,
    Sparta (or Lacedaemon) was merely a Doric
    village on the banks of the river Eurotas in
    Laconia. However, in the early 8th century BC,
    Spartan society was transformed. The reforms, which were ascribed by later
    tradition to the possibly mythical figure of Lycurgus, created new
    institutions and established the military nature of the Spartan state.[6] This
    "constitution of Lycurgus" remained
    essentially unchanged for five centuries.[6] From c. 750 BC, Sparta embarked
    on a steady expansion, first by subduing Amyclae
    and the other settlements of Laconia, and later, in
    the First Messenian War,
    conquering the fertile country of Messenia. By
    the beginning of the 7th century BC, Sparta was, along with
    Argos, the dominant power in the
    Peloponnese.

    Establishment of Spartan hegemony over the

    Peloponnese[edit]

    Inevitably, these two powers collided. Initial Argive successes, such as the
    victory at the Battle of Hysiae "Battle of
    Hysiae (669 BC)") in 669 BC, led to an uprising of the
    Messenians
    , which tied
    down the Spartan army for almost 20 years.[7] Over the course of the 6th
    century, Sparta secured her control of the Peloponnese peninsula: Arcadia was forced to
    recognize Spartan overlordship; Argos lost Cynuria
    (the SE coast of the Peloponnese) in about 546 and suffered a further
    crippling blow from Cleomenes I at the
    Battle of Sepeia in 494, while
    repeated expeditions against tyrannical regimes
    throughout Greece greatly raised their prestige.[8] By the early 5th century,
    Sparta was the unchallenged master in southern Greece, as the leading power (
    hegemon ) of the newly established Peloponnesian
    League
    (which was more
    characteristically known to its contemporaries as "the Lacedaemonians and
    their allies").[9]

    Persian and Peloponnesian

    Wars[edit]

    By the late 6th century BC, Sparta was recognized as the preeminent Greek
    city-state. King Croesus of Lydia
    established an alliance with the Spartans,[10] and later, the Greek cities of
    Asia Minor appealed to them for help during the Ionian
    Revolt
    .[10] In the second Persian
    invasion
    of Greece, under
    Xerxes, Sparta was assigned
    the overall leadership of Greek forces on land and at sea. The Spartans played
    a crucial role in the repulsion of the invasion, notably at the battles of
    Thermopylae and
    Plataea. In the aftermath,
    however, due to the plottings of Pausanias
    "Pausanias (general)") with the Persians and their unwillingness to campaign
    too far from home, the Spartans withdrew into a relative isolation, leaving
    the rising power of Athens to lead the continued
    effort against the Persians. This isolationist tendency was further reinforced
    by the revolts of some of her allies and a great
    earthquake
    in 464,
    which was followed by a large scale revolt of the Messenian
    helots.[8]

    The parallel rise of Athens as a major power in Greece led to friction with
    Sparta, and to two large-scale conflicts, (the
    First and Second
    Peloponnesian Wars
    ), which
    devastated Greece. Sparta suffered several defeats during these wars,
    including, for the first time, the surrender of an entire Spartan unit at
    Sphacteria in 425 BC, but
    ultimately emerged victorious, primarily through the aid it received from the
    Persians. Under its admiral Lysander, the
    Persian-funded Peloponnesian fleet captured the cities of the Athenian
    alliance, and a decisive naval victory at
    Aegospotami forced
    Athens to capitulate.[8] The Athenian defeat left Sparta and its military
    forces in a dominant position in Greece.

    End of

    Hegemony[edit]

    Spartan ascendancy did not last long. By the end of the 5th century BC, Sparta
    had suffered serious casualties in the Peloponnesian Wars, and its
    conservative and narrow mentality alienated many of its former allies. At the
    same time, its military class – the Spartiate
    caste – was in decline for several reasons:

    • Population decline due to Sparta's frequent wars in the late 5th century. Since Spartiates were required to marry late, birth rates remained low, making it difficult to replace their losses.
    • One could be demoted from Spartiate status for a number of reasons such as cowardice in battle or the inability to pay for membership in the syssitia. Inability to pay became such an increasingly severe problem because commercial activity had started to develop in Sparta. Because of this, commerce had become uncontrollable, leading to the complete ban of commerce in Sparta. This led to lesser ways of earning income; consequently, some Spartiates had to sell the land from which they drew their income. As the constitution made no provisions for promotion to Spartiate caste, numbers gradually dwindled.

    As Sparta's military power waned, Thebes repeatedly challenged its authority. The ensuing Corinthian
    War
    led to the humiliating Peace of
    Antalcidas
    that destroyed
    Sparta's reputation as the protector of the independence of Greek city-states.
    At the same time, Spartan military prestige suffered a severe blow when a
    [mora](/wiki/Mora(militaryunit) "Mora (military unit)") of 600 men was
    decimated "Decimation (Roman army)") by
    peltasts (light troops) under the command of the
    Athenian general Iphicrates. Spartan authority finally collapsed after their disastrous
    defeat at the Battle of Leuctra
    by the Thebans commanded by Epaminondas in
    371 BC. The battle, in which large numbers of Spartiates were killed, resulted
    in the loss of the fertile Messenia region
    "Messenia (ancient region)").

    Army

    organization[edit]

    Social

    structure[edit]

    "... the allies of the Lacedaemonians were offended at
    Agesilaus, because ... they themselves
    [provided] so many [soldiers], and the Lacedaemonians, whom they followed, so
    few. ... Agesilaus, wishing to refute their argument with numbers ... ordered
    all the allies to sit down by themselves promiscuously, the Lacedaemonians
    apart by themselves. Then his herald called upon the potters to stand up
    first, and after them the smiths, next, the carpenters in their turn, and the
    builders, and so on through all the handicrafts. In response, almost all the
    allies rose up, but not a man of the Lacedaemonians; for they were forbidden
    to learn or practice a manual art. Then Agesilaus said with a laugh: 'You see,

    O men, how many more soldiers than you we are sending out.'"

    Plutarch, The Life of Agesilaus ,
    26

    The Spartan people (the "Lacedaemonians")
    were divided into three classes:

    • Full citizens, known as the Spartiates proper, or Hómoioi ("equals" or peers), who received a grant of land ( kláros or klēros , "lot") for their military service.
    • Perioeci (the "dwellers nearby"), free non-citizens, generally merchants, craftsmen and sailors, who were used as light infantry and on auxiliary roles on campaign.[9]
    • The third and most numerous class were the Helots , state-owned serfs used to farm the Spartiate klēros. By the 5th century BC, the helots, too, were used as light troops in skirmishes.[1]

    The Spartiates were the core of the Spartan army: they participated in the
    Assembly ( Apella ) and provided the hoplites in
    the army. Indeed, they were supposed to be soldiers and nothing else, being
    forbidden to learn and exercise any other trade.[1] To a large degree, the
    constant war footing of Spartan society was needed to keep the vastly more
    numerous helots subdued.[11] One of the major problems of later Spartan
    society was the steady decline in fully enfranchised citizens, which also
    meant a decline in available military manpower: the number of Spartiates
    decreased from 6,000 in 640 BC to 1,000 in 330 BC.[12] The Spartans were
    therefore forced to use helot hoplites, and occasionally they freed some of
    the Laconian helots, the neodamōdeis (the
    "newly enfranchised"), and gave them land to settle in exchange for military
    service.[13]

    The Spartiate population was subdivided into age groups. The youngest at 20
    were counted as weaker due to lack of experience, and the oldest, up to 60 or
    in a crisis 65, were only called up in an emergency, to defend the baggage
    train
    .

    Tactical

    structure[edit]

    Spartan helmet on display at the

    British Museum

    . The helmet has been damaged and the top has sustained a blow, presumably
    from a battle.

    The principal source for the organization of the Spartan Army is
    Xenophon, who admired the Spartans and whose
    Constitution of Sparta offers a detailed overview of the Spartan state and
    society at the beginning of the 4th century BC. Other authors, notably
    Thucydides, also provide information, but it
    is not always as reliable as Xenophon's first-hand accounts.[14]

    Little is known of the earlier organisation, and much is left open to
    speculation. The earliest form of social and military organization (during the
    7th century BC) seems to have been the three tribes ( phylai : the
    Pamphyloi , Hylleis and Dymanes ), who appear in the Second Messenian
    War
    (685–668 BC). A
    further subdivision was the "fraternity" ( phratra ), of which 27, or nine
    per tribe, are recorded.[15] Eventually this system was replaced by five
    territorial divisions, the obai ("villages"), which supplied a
    lochos of c. 1,000 men each.[16] This system was
    still used during the Persian Wars, as implied by references to the lochoi
    made by Herodotus in his history.[17]

    The changes that occurred between the Persian and the Peloponnesian Wars are
    not documented, but according to Thucydides, at
    Mantinea "Battle of Mantinea (418
    BC)") in 418 BC there were 7 lochoi present, each subdivided into four
    pentekostyes of 128 men, which were further subdivided into four enōmotiai
    of 32 men, giving a total of 3,584 men for the main Spartan army.[18] By the
    end of the Peloponnesian War, the structure had evolved further, both to
    address the shortages in manpower and to create a more flexible system that
    allowed the Spartans to send smaller detachments on campaign or to garrisons
    outside their homeland.[19] According to Xenophon, the basic Spartan unit
    remained the enōmotia , with 36 men in three files of twelve under an
    enōmotarches.[20] Two enōmotiai formed a pentēkostys of 72 men under a
    pentēkontēr , and two pentēkostyai were grouped into a lochos of 144 men
    under a lochagos. Four lochoi formed a
    [mora](/wiki/Mora(militaryunit) "Mora (military unit)") of 576 men
    under a polemarchos , the largest single
    tactical unit of the Spartan army.[21] Six morai composed the Spartan army
    on campaign, to which were added the Skiritai
    and the contingents of allied states.

    The kings and the hippeis

    [edit]

    The full army was normally led in battle by the two
    kings; initially, both went on
    campaign, but after the 6th century BC only one, with the other remaining at
    home.[6] Unlike other states, their authority was severely circumscribed;
    actual power rested with the five elected ephoroi.[1] The kings were
    accompanied by a select group of 300 men as a royal guard, who were termed
    hippeis ("cavalrymen"). Despite their title, they
    were infantry hoplites like all Spartiatai. Indeed, the Spartans did not
    utilize a cavalry of their own until late into the Peloponnesian
    War
    , when small units of 60
    cavalrymen were attached to each mora.[21] The hippeis belonged to the
    first mora and were the elite of the Spartan army, being deployed on the
    honorary right side of the battle line. They were selected every year by
    specially commissioned officials, the hippagretai , from among experienced
    men who had sons, so that their line would continue.[17]

    Training[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=11

    "Edit section: Training")]

    Further information:

    Agoge

    "Ὦ ξεῖν’, ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ὅτι τῇδε
    κείμεθα, τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι."
    "Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, that here,

    obedient to their laws, we lie."

    Simonides of Ceos, Epitaph on
    the burial mound of the Spartans who fell at Thermopylae
    [22]

    At first, in the archaic period of 700–600 BC, education for both sexes was,
    as in most Greek states, centred on the arts, with the
    male citizen population later receiving military
    education
    . However, from the
    6th century onwards, the military character of the state became more
    pronounced, and education was totally subordinated to the needs of the
    military.[23]

    Both boys and girls were brought up by the city women until the age of seven,
    when boys ( paidia ) were taken from their mothers and grouped together in
    "packs" ( agelai ) and were sent to what is almost equivalent to present-day
    military boot camp. This military camp was known as the Agoge. They became
    inured to hardship, being provided with scant food and clothing; this also
    encouraged them to steal, and if they were caught, they were punished – not
    for stealing, but for being caught.[11] There is a characteristic story, told
    by Plutarch: "The boys make such a serious matter of their stealing, that one
    of them, as the story goes, who was carrying concealed under his cloak a young
    fox which he had stolen, suffered the animal to tear out his bowels with its
    teeth and claws, and died rather than have his theft detected."[24] The boys
    were encouraged to compete against one another in games and mock fights and to
    foster an _esprit de corps_. In
    addition, they were taught to read and write and learned the songs of
    Tyrtaios, that celebrated Spartan exploits in the
    Second Messenian War. They learned to read and write not for cultural reasons,
    but so they could be able to read military maps.[25] At the age of twelve, a
    boy was classed as a "youth" ( meirakion ). His physical education was
    intensified, discipline became much harsher, and the boys were loaded with
    extra tasks. The youths had to go barefoot, and were dressed only in a tunic
    both in summer and in winter.[11]

    Adulthood was reached at the age of 18, and the young adult ( eiren )
    initially served as a trainer for the boys. At the same time, the most
    promising youths were included in the Krypteia.
    If they survived the two years in the countryside they would become full blown
    soldiers. At 20, Spartans became eligible for military service and joined one
    of the messes ( syssitia ), which included 15
    men of various ages.[26] Those who were rejected retained a lesser form of
    citizenship, as only the soldiers were ranked among the homoioi. However,
    even after that, and even during marriage and until about the age of 30, they
    would spend most of their day in the barracks
    with their unit. Military duty lasted until the 60th year, but there are
    recorded cases of older people participating in campaigns in times of
    crisis.[15]

    Throughout their adult lives, the Spartiates continued to be subject to a
    training regime so strict that, as Plutarch says, "... they were the only men
    in the world with whom war brought a respite in the training for war."[27]
    Bravery was the ultimate virtue for the Spartans: Spartan mothers would give
    their sons the shield with the words "[Return] With it or [carried] on it!" (Ἢ
    τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς),[28] that is to say, either victorious or dead, since in
    battle, the heavy hoplite shield would be the first thing a fleeing soldier
    would be tempted to abandon –- rhipsaspia , "dropping the shield", was a
    synonym for desertion in the field.[29]

    The army on

    campaign[edit]

    Tactics[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=13

    "Edit section: Tactics")]

    Modern reconstruction of a

    phalanx

    advancing in close ranks.

    Like the armies of the other Greek states, the Spartan army was an infantry-
    based army that fought using the phalanx formation. The Spartans themselves did not introduce any
    significant changes or tactical innovations in hoplite warfare, but their
    constant drill and superb discipline made their phalanx much more cohesive and
    effective. The Spartans employed the phalanx in the classical style in a
    single line, uniformly deep in files of 8 to 12 men. When fighting alongside
    their allies, the Spartans would normally occupy the honorary right flank. If,
    as usually happened, the Spartans achieved victory on their side, they would
    then wheel left and roll up the enemy formation.[30]

    During the Peloponnesian War, engagements became more fluid, light troops
    became increasingly used and tactics evolved to meet them, but in direct
    confrontations between two opposing phalanxes, stamina and "pushing ability"
    were what counted.[31] It was only when the Thebans, under
    Epaminondas increased the
    depth
    of a part of their
    formation at the Battle of Leuctra that the Spartan phalanx broke.

    On the march[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=14

    "Edit section: On the march")]

    According to Xenophon, the army was mobilized by
    the ephors, and after a series of religious ceremonies
    and sacrifices, the army assembled and set out.[32] The army proceeded led by
    the king, with the skiritai and cavalry detachments acting as an advance
    guard and scouting parties.[33] The necessary provisions (barley, cheese,
    onions and salted meat) were carried along with the army, and each Spartan was
    accompanied by a helot manservant.[34] Each mora marched and camped
    separately, with its own baggage train.[35] Sacrifice was given every morning
    and before battle by the king and the officers; if the omens were not
    favourable, a pious leader might refuse to march or to engage the enemy.[36]

    Clothing, arms, and

    armor[edit]

    The Spartans used the same typical hoplite
    equipment as the other Greek neighbors; the only distinctive Spartan features
    were the crimson tunic ( chitōn ) and cloak ( himation ),[37] and long
    hair, which the Spartans retained to a far later date than most Greeks. To the
    Spartans, long hair retained its older Archaic meaning as the symbol of a free
    man; to the other Greeks, by the 5th century, its peculiar association with
    the Spartans had come to signify pro-Spartan sympathies.[38]

    Classical

    period[edit]

    The letter lambda (Λ), standing for
    Laconia or Lacedaemon, which was painted on the Spartans' shields, was first adopted in the 420s BC, and quickly became a widely known
    Spartan symbol.[39] Military families passed on their shields to each
    generation as family heirlooms. The technical evolution and design of Spartan
    shields evolved from bashing and shield
    wall
    tactics, and were of such great
    importance in the Spartan army that while losing a sword and a spear was an
    exception, to lose a shield was a sign of disgrace. Not only does it protect
    the user, but it also protects the whole phalanx formation. To come home
    without the shield was the mark of a deserter; rhipsaspia or "dropping the
    shield", was a synonym for desertion in the field. Mothers bidding farewell to
    their sons would encourage them to come back with their shields, often saying
    goodbyes like "Son, either with this or on this" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς), meaning
    they should return only in victory, a controlled retreat, or death, their body
    being carried on the shield.[40][41]

    Spartan hoplites were often depicted bearing a transverse horsehair crest on
    their helmet, which was possibly used to identify officers.[42] In the Archaic
    period, Spartans were armored with flanged bronze
    cuirasses, leg greaves,
    and a helmet, often of the Corinthian type. It is often disputed which torso armor the Spartans wore during
    the Persian Wars, though it seems likely they either continued to wear bronze
    cuirasses of a more sculptured type, or instead had adopted the
    linothōrax. During the later 5th century
    BC, when warfare had become more flexible and full-scale phalanx
    confrontations became rarer, the Greeks abandoned most forms of body armor.
    The Lacedaemonians also adopted a new tunic, the exōmis , which could be arranged so that it left the right arm and
    shoulder uncovered and free for action in combat.[43]

    The Spartan's main weapon was the [dory](/wiki/Dory(spear) "Dory
    (spear)")_ spear. For long range, they carried a
    javelin. The Spartiates were always
    armed with a xiphos as a secondary weapon. Among
    most Greek warriors, this weapon had an iron blade of about 60 centimeters;
    however, the Spartan version was typically only 30–45 centimetres. The
    Spartans' shorter weapon proved deadly in the crush caused by colliding
    phalanxes formations – it was capable of being thrust through gaps in the
    enemy's shield wall and armor, where there was no room for longer weapons. The
    groin and throat were among the favorite targets. In one account, an Athenian
    asked a Spartan why his sword was so short and after a short pause he replied,
    "It's long enough to reach your heart." In another, a Spartan complained to
    his mother that the sword was short, to which she simply told him to step
    closer to the enemy. As an alternative to the xiphos, some Spartans selected
    the kopis as their secondary weapon. Unlike the
    xiphos, which is a thrusting weapon, the kopis was a hacking weapon in the
    form of a thick, curved iron sword. In Athenian art, Spartan hoplites were
    often depicted using a kopis instead of the xiphos, as the kopis was seen as a
    quintessential "bad guys" weapon in Greek eyes.[44] The Spartans retained the
    traditional hoplite phalanx until the reforms of Cleomenes
    III
    , when they were re-equipped with the
    Macedonian sarissa and trained in the style of
    the phalanx.

    Spartans trained in pankration , a famous
    martial art in Ancient Greece that
    consisted of boxing and grappling. Spartans were so adept in pankration that, when it was
    inducted in the Olympic Games, they were mostly forbidden to compete.[ _citation
    needed
    _ ]

    Hellenistic

    period[edit]

    During the Hellenistic period
    Spartan equipment evolved drastically. Since the early 3rd century BC the
    pilos helmet had become almost standard within the
    Spartan army, being in use by the Spartans until the end of the Classical era[
    _citation needed_ ]. Also after the "Iphicratean reforms" peltasts became a much more common sight on the Greek battlefield and
    themselves became more heavily armed. In response to
    Iphicrates' victory over Sparta in 392
    BC
    , Spartan hoplites started
    abandoning body armour and eventually wore almost no armour apart from a
    shield, leg greaves, bracelets, helmet and a robe. In later periods Spartans
    did start to readopt armour, but on a much lesser scale than during the
    Archaic period. Finally during 227 BC, Cleomenes' reforms introduced updated
    equipment to Sparta, including the Macedonian sarissa (pike). However pike-men armed with the sarissa never
    outnumbered troops equipped in the hoplite style. It was also in that time
    Sparta adopted its own cavalry and archers.

    Philosophy, education, and the Spartan

    code[edit]

    Spartan

    philosophy[edit]

    Contrary to popular belief, Spartans valued knowledge and education more than
    the Athenians did.[45] Spartan philosophers
    include Lycurgus and Chilon of Sparta. Although Athens has been praised as the "inventor" of democracy and
    philosophy, Sparta often has been viewed in popular culture as a society
    characterized by brutal, mindless discipline and merciless emphasis on
    physical fitness.[ _citation needed_ ] Sparta, however, had its own democratic
    government. In the Appella or Demos as early as 700
    BC, Spartans elect leaders and voted by range voting and shouting. Every male age 30 and above could participate.
    Aristotle called the Spartan electoral process
    "childish" in contrast to the stone ballots cast by the Athenians. Sparta
    adopted its procedure for the sake of simplicity, and to prevent any bias
    voting, bribing, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic
    elections.[46]

    Spartan

    education[edit]

    The Spartan public education system, the agoge ,
    trained the mind as well as the body. Spartans were not only literate, but
    admired for their intellectual culture and poetry. Socrates said the "most ancient and fertile homes of philosophy among the
    Greeks are Crete and Sparta, where are found more sophists than anywhere on
    earth."[47] Public education was
    provided for girls as well as boys, and consequently literacy rate was higher
    in Sparta than in other Greek city-states.[48] In education, sports was given
    the most emphasis in teaching.[48]

    Self-discipline, not kadavergehorsam (mindless obedience) was the goal of
    Spartan education. Sparta placed the values of liberty, equality, and
    fraternity at the center of their ethical system. These values applied to
    every full Spartan citizen, immigrant, merchant, and even to the
    helots, but not to the dishonored. Helots are unique
    in the history of slavery in that unlike traditional slaves, they were allowed
    to keep and gain wealth. They could keep half their agricultural produce and
    presumably sell it; thus accumulating wealth. There are known to have been
    some occasions that a helot with enough money was allowed to purchase their
    freedom from the state.[49]

    Spartan code of

    honor[edit]

    The Spartan hoplite followed a strict
    laconic code of
    honor
    . No soldier was considered superior
    to another.[48] Suicidal recklessness, berserkery, and rage were prohibited in
    a Spartan army, as those behaviors endangered the phalanx. Recklessness could
    lead to dishonor, as in the case of Aristodemus.[50] Spartans regarded those who fight, while still
    wishing to live, as more valorous than those who don't care if they die.[50]
    They believed that a warrior must not fight with raging anger, but with calmed
    determination.[51] By the laconic way of life, Spartans must walk without any
    noise, and speak only with few words.[48] Other ways for Spartans to be
    dishonored were dropping the shield ( rhipsaspia ), failing to complete the
    training, and deserting in battle. Dishonored Spartans were labeled outcasts,
    and were forced to wear different clothing for public
    humiliation
    .[48] In battle,
    stories of valor were told to inspire troops and, before a major
    confrontation, they sang soft songs to calm the nerves.[52]

    Spartan navy[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=22

    "Edit section: Spartan navy")]

    Throughout their history, the Spartans were a land based force par
    excellence
    . During the Persian Wars, they contributed a small navy of 20
    triremes, and provided the overall fleet commander,
    but they largely relied on their allies, primarily the
    Corinthians, for naval power. This fact meant that,
    when the Peloponnesian War
    broke out, the Spartans were supreme on land, but the Athenians supreme at
    sea. The Spartans repeatedly ravaged Attica, but the
    Athenians kept being supplied by sea, and were able to stage raids of their
    own around the Peloponnese with their navy. Eventually, it was the creation of
    a navy that enabled Sparta to overcome Athens. With Persian gold, Lysander,
    appointed navarch in 407 BC, was able to master a
    strong navy, and successfully challenge and destroy Athenian predominance in
    the Aegean Sea.[8] The Spartan engagement with the sea would be short-lived,
    however, and did not survive the turmoils of the Corinthian
    War
    : in the Battle of
    Cnidus
    of 394 BC, the Spartan navy
    was decisively defeated by a joint Athenian-Persian fleet, marking the end of
    Sparta's brief naval supremacy. The final blow would be given 20 years later,
    at the Battle of Naxos in 376 BC. A
    small fleet was periodically maintained thereafter, but its effectiveness was
    limited; the last revival of Spartan naval power was under Nabis, who, with aid from his Cretan allies, created
    a fleet to control the Laconian coastline.

    The fleet was commanded by navarchs , who were appointed for a strictly one-
    year term, and apparently could not be reappointed. The admirals were
    subordinated to the vice-admiral, called epistoleus. This position is
    seemingly independent of the one-year term clause, because it was used, in 405
    BC to give Lysander command of the fleet after he was already an admiral for a
    year.

    Wars and

    battles[edit]

    Messenian

    Wars[edit]

    Wars with

    Argos[edit]

    culture[edit]

    See also[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=34

    "Edit section: See also")]

    Notes and

    references[edit]

    1. ^ a b c d e Connolly (2006), p. 38
    2. ^ Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus (written 75, trans. John Dryden 9999), The Internet Classics Archive
    3. ^ Hodkinson, Stephen (1996). "Agoge". In Hornblower, Simon (ed.). _Oxford Classical Dictionary_. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    4. ^ Compare: Oxford Dictionary: "Showing or characterized by austerity or a lack of comfort or luxury".
    5. ^ Warry (2004), pp. 14–15.
    6. ^ a b c Sekunda (1998), p. 4.
    7. ^ Sekunda (1998), pp. 6–7
    8. ^ a b c d Sekunda (1998), p. 7.
    9. ^ a b Connolly (2006), p. 11.
    10. ^ a b Holland, Tom. Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Anchor. ISBN "ISBN (identifier)") 0-307-27948-0.
    11. ^ a b c Connolly (2006), p. 39
    12. ^ Lane Fox, Robin. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books. ISBN "ISBN (identifier)") 0-465-02496-3.
    13. ^ Sekunda (1998), pp. 16–17
    14. ^ Connolly (2006), pp. 38–39
    15. ^ a b Sekunda (1998), p. 13.
    16. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 14
    17. ^ a b Connolly (2006), p. 41.
    18. ^ Thucydides, _History of the Peloponnesian War_ 5.68.2
    19. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 15.
    20. ^ Until the late 5th century, however, each file seems to have had a depth of only 8 men. Connolly (2006), p. 40
    21. ^ a b Connolly (2006), p. 40.
    22. ^ Herodotus, 7.228.1
    23. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition
    24. ^ Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus , 18.1
    25. ^ Sekunda (1998), pp. 10–11
    26. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 12
    27. ^ Plutarch, The Life of Lycurgus , 22.2
    28. ^ Plutarch, Moralia , Sayings of Spartan Women 241.F
    29. ^ Miller, William Ian (2002). The mystery of courage. Harvard University Press. p. 98. ISBN "ISBN (identifier)") 978-0-674-00826-7.
    30. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 19.
    31. ^ "Spartan armor". Marvel Comics. July 16, 2012. Retrieved May 9, 2018.
    32. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 17.
    33. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 18
    34. ^ Connolly (2006), p. 44.
    35. ^ Connolly (2006), pp. 46–47.
    36. ^ Connolly (2006), p. 47.
    37. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 20
    38. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 24.
    39. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 27; disputed by Campbell (2012)
    40. ^ Spartan Quotes
    41. ^ History of the Spartan Shield (ERRONEOUS LINK?)
    42. ^ Sekunda (1986), pp.3 & 6.
    43. ^ Sekunda (1998), p. 21.
    44. ^ Spartan Weaponry
    45. ^ Soriano (2005), pp. 84–85.
    46. ^ Full historical description of the Spartan government
    47. ^ Plato, Protagoras, 343b:366.
    48. ^ a b c d e Soriano (2005), p. 85.
    49. ^ Cleomenes III in 223/2 BC allowed Helots to become free by paying 500 drachmas; 6000 helots paid.
    50. ^ a b Schmitz vol 1. p304
    51. ^ Soriano (2005), pp. 87–89
    52. ^ Soriano (2005), pp. 90–91.

    Sources[[edit](/w/index.php?title=Spartan_army&action=edit&section=36 "Edit

    section: Sources")]